


S H 

4-5 



ACCLIMATIZATION OF AMERICAN FISHES IN 
ARGENTINA > jt ^ ,9^ ^ ^ ^ 

From BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Volume XXVIII, 1908 



Proceedings of the Fourth International Fishery Congress 



Washington, jgo8 




WASHINGTON ;::■.:: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE :::::: 1910 




Glass _^A\HS_ 

Book _-I^ — • 



I 



ACCLIMATIZATION OF AMERICAN FISHES IN 
ARGENTINA ^ ^ .^ ^ .^ ^ ^ 



From BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Volume XXVIII, 1908 



Proceedings of the Foiirth International Fishery Congress 



lVashingto?i, igo8 




Ja-c-Ivo 



l^ulVO -.A 



WASHINGTON :::::: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE :::::: 1910 



BUREAU OF FISHERIES DOCUMENT NO. 696 
Issued April. 1910 






APR 1ft 1910 



qJ 



ACCLIMATIZATION OF AMERICAN FISHES IN ARGENTINA 



By E. A. Tulian 

Chief of the Section of Fish Culture, Ministry of 
Agriculture, Argentina 



Paper presented before the Fourth International Fishery Congress 
held at Washington, U. S. A., September 22 to 26. 1908 



955 



ACCLIMATIZATION OF AMERICAN FISHES IN ARGENTINA. 



By E. A. TULIAN, 
Chief of the Section of Fish Culture, Ministry of Agriculture, Argentina. 



During the latter part of 1903 the Government of Argentina, having deter- 
mined upon investigations as to the possibihties of practical fish cultiu-e in 
that country, employed Mr. John W. Titcomb, chief of the division of fish 
culture in the United States Bureau of Fisheries, to inaugurate the undertaking. 
Mr. Titcomb was engaged in the work some eight or nine months, and during 
this period arranged for the introduction of several species of fish from the 
United States. He also chose the site for the first hatchery at Lago Nahuel 
Huapi, situated in the Andes Mountains, within 2 or 3 miles of the Chilean 
boundary. 

Actual fish cultural work was begun in Argentina March 4, 1904, with the 
arrival at Lago Nahuel Huapi of a consignment of fish eggs with which I had 
left New York January 19. From Buenos Aires I brought also the necessary 
equipment for a small temporary hatchery, the latter having been planned by 
Mr. Titcomb and nearly finished under his direction before he left the lake. 
The first part of the journey, from Buenos Aires to Neuquen, was made by 
train, the time occupied being two nights and one day. From Neuquen to 
Lago Nahuel Huapi, a distance of 300 miles, the eggs and hatchery equipment 
were carried in wagons, the members of the party accompanying on horseback. 

The consignment of eggs consisted, in New York, of the following: One 
million whitefish (Coregonus dupeijormis) , 100,000 brook trout (Salvelinus 
jontinalis), 53,000 lake trout {Cristivomer namaycush), and 50,000 landlocked 
salmon (Salmo salar sebago) . The loss in the entire lot of eggs, from the time 
they left New York until their hatching was completed, was less than 10 per 
cent. The loss in the lake trout was only about 5 per cent, and the same in 
one lot of brook trout, while the other 50,000 lot of this species began hatching 
before reaching their destination, thereby causing a loss of about 30 per cent. 
The loss of landlocked salmon was about 10 per cent, while the loss of white- 
fish to the day their distribution was concluded had been only 10 per cent. 
This consignment of eggs produced a great many more fry than we expected, 
and it became necessary to move the hatching troughs and fish immediately 

957 



958 BUIvIvETiN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

to a site about 3 miles away, where were found springs from which would 
flow at least ten times more water than those at the first location. The hatchery 
on this site has since been pulled down and rebuilt on a much larger scale. 

We liberated 900,000 strong, healthy whitefish fry in Lago Nahuel Huapi 
within a month after the arrival of the eggs at the hatchery. Up to the present 
time, however, no specimens of the whitefish have been secured for unmis- 
takable identification, owing, probably, to the fact that we have not yet been 
able to fish systematically for them with suitable boats and nets. A supposed 
whitefish was caught in a small seine about a year ago by an "estanciero" 
living on the shore of the lake. 

The majority of the lake trout, as also the greater number of the land- 
locked salmon, were planted in the lakes Nahuel Huapi, Traful, Gutierrez, and 
Correntosa. Lago Traful is about 45 miles from Lago Nahuel Huapi, and is about 
30 miles long, but probably not more than 5 wide at greatest width, and very 
narrow at other points. Lago Gutierrez and Lago Correntosa are connected 
with Lago Nahuel Huapi by short streams. Both lakes are about 10 miles 
long, with an average of 2 to 4 miles in width. The larger proportion of the 
brook trout were planted in a number of small rivers and streams flowing into 
these lakes, as well as in tributaries to the Rio Limay and Rio Traful. The 
Rio Limay flows out of Lago Nahuel Huapi, and the Rio Traful out of Lago 
Traful, and empties into the Rio Limay. 

Lake trout have been found in Lago Traful and Lago Correntosa, and 
landlocked salmon in Lago Gutierrez, while brook trout have been found in 
nearly all of the rivers and brooks stocked. In many of these the brook trout 
are very numerous and are increasing rapidly. The superintendent and assist- 
ants of the Nahuel Huapi hatchery took, both last year and this, thousands of 
fingerlings from irrigating ditches which receive their water from these streams, 
and replanted them in the brooks. Only last April 860 brook trout fingerlings 
were taken from a small garden-irrigating ditch heading in the "arroyo de 
Jones," and 2,300 from another heading in the "arroyo de Newbery." These 
were undoubtedly fingerlings hatched in September or October, 1907. 

On March i, 1905, the fish in the ponds at the Nahuel Huapi hatchery 
were counted, and there were found to be 8,500 brook trout, 3,800 lake trout, 
and 1,800 landlocked salmon. They measured from 6 to 8 inches in length. 
A large number were accidentally lost during the latter part of the year, but 
in May, 1906, we had a considerable number of each of these species in the 
ponds. The death rate in all three from the time hatched, in March, 1904, until 
now was as low as would have been found at any one of the more successful 
trout hatcheries in the United States. During this month (May) about 50,000 
brook trout eggs were collected from stock fish, and the loss on the lot during 
the hatching period was but 4 per cent. The alevins hatched were strong 



AMERICAN FISHES IN ARGENTINA. 959 

and healthy, and later turned out a robust lot of fry, the loss being less than 
5 per cent during the next four months. 

During May and June, 1907, 270,000 brook trout eggs were collected at the 
Nahuel Huapi hatchery. They were hatched with an average loss of 15 per 
cent. On June 21 140,000 of these eggs were eyed and started down the Rio 
Limay to Neuquen in a small boat, and brought from Neuquen to La Cumbre, 
in the Province of Cordoba, via Buenos Aires, by rail. They arrived at the La 
Cumbre hatchery July 7, with a loss en route of 2 per cent, and were hatched 
with a further loss of 4 per cent. The fry loss was not large, not taking into 
account the killing of a large number by accident. Plants of fry were made 
during the latter part of August and all of September, in various bodies of 
water in the provinces of Cordoba, Buenos Aires, Tucuman, Salta, and San 
Luis. 

La Cumbre is in the Cordoba Mountains, an inland range, and about eighteen 
hours from Buenos Aires by train. The elevation is about 4,100 feet. 

I have not yet had time to make a systematic investigation of the waters 
stocked with the fish hatched from the 40,000 brook trout eggs at La Cumbre, 
but have been told that trout do exist in several of these bodies of water; and 
I know that splendid results have been obtained from a plant of 200, made 
the last of September, in what is known as the Lumsdaine "dique." This 
is a small pond from 130 to 150 feet in diameter, nearly round, with a maximum 
depth of 10 feet in its deepest part when full, which is seldom. The water 
for filling this pond is brought from a very small mountain stream in an open 
ditch, which is from one-half to three-fourths of a mile long and into which the 
sun shines all day. The minimum flow of this stream is 35 gallons of water 
per minute, and the ponds receive it all during the first ten days in each month, 
but only 5 gallons per minute during the rest of the month. The maximum 
temperature of the water in this stream is 75° to 77° F. at noon on a hot sum- 
mer's day, but usually drops back to from 60° to 65° F. at night. I do not 
know the temperature of the water in the ditch where it empties into the 
pond at midday in summer, but judge it reaches a temperature as high as 80° 
to 85° F. I presume the temperature of the water in the bottom of the pond 
is about 74° to 78° F. at this time. 

On July 31 , 1908, about one year after these trout were hatched, there were 
in this pond from 125 to 150 as fine and healthy brook trout as I have ever 
seen. The only artificial food they have ever had was during about one month 
when held in the rearing troughs. Since being liberated they have had only 
the natural food found in this pond; notwithstanding which all are now from 
7 to 10 inches in length. 

It is hoped that about one-half million of brook trout eggs and a few thousand 
of landlocked salmon eggs will be collected at the Nahuel Huapi hatchery this 



960 



BUI^IvETlN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 



season. By May 31 a total of 255,600 brook-trout eggs had been secured. 
About the first of June 63,000 eyed eggs of this lot were sent to Buenos Aires, 
and from this city 23,000 were sent to the La Cumbre hatchery, and 40,000 
to a small temporary hatching plant only recently located near Ledesma, in 
the Province of Jujuy, the most northerly province of Argentina. A few days 
later another lot of 25,000 brook trout eggs were shipped from the Nahuel 
Huapi hatchery to Santiago, Chile, by request of the Chilean Government, 
to be hatched in a small hatchery belonging to that Government, located in 
the Andes Mountains, on the railroad which crosses from Buenos Aires to Val- 
paraiso, not far from the Argentine boundary. The eggs shipped to La Cumbre 
and Ledesma, via Buenos Aires, reached their respective destinations with a 
loss of less than 3 per cent. Those shipped to La Cumbre were hatched with 
a very small loss (less than 4 per cent), and the alevins are strong and robust 
and fast reaching the feeding stage, with a very small percentage of loss. The 
loss of eggs hatched at Ledesma was larger, owing to the high temperature of 
the water we were compelled to use for hatching, which was 55° to 60° F., and 
8° to 10° F. warmer than at La Cumbre. The loss of alevins at Ledesma has 
also been rather large to date, owing probably to the same cause; in neither 
case, however, has the loss been unexpectedly great. 

From what we have accomplished with the brook trout at Nahuel Huapi 
and La Cumbre, I am led to believe that, by gradually breeding them up to 
it over a period of two or three years, these fish can be successfully reared in 
very warm water. 

The following table shows the small loss of stock fish at the Nahuel Huapi 
hatchery for the five months ended March 31, 1908: 

Statement of Losses of Adult Fish at Nahuel Huapi Hatchery for Five Months Ended 

March 31, 1908. 



Species. 



On hand 
Oct. 30, 1907. 



Deaths from 

Oct. 30, 1907, 

to Mar. 31, 

1908. 



On hand 
Mar. 31, 190S 



Brook trout (2 to 4 years). - 
Landlocked salmon (4 years) 
Rainbow trout (3 years) 

Total 



4.902 
70 



4.849 
67 



4.976 



S6 



Of fingerling and yearling brook trout there were on hand October 30, 
1907, 60,950; distributed November i, 1907, to March 31, 1908, 49,700; loss 
November i, 1907, to March 31, 1908, 3,350; on hand March 31, 1908, 8,900.'' 

The second shipment of eggs of American fishes to the Argentine Republic 
resulted rather disastrously. One of the superintendents of this section left New 

a It is in the summer months — December, January, and February — covered by these figures, 
that the greatest losses occur. 



AMERICAN FISHES IN ARGENTINA. 961 

York early in June, 1904, with 20,000 eggs of steelhead trout {Salmo gairdneri) 
and 50,000 rainbow trout (Sahno irideus) eggs. Off the coast of Brazil the 
steelhead eggs commenced hatching rapidly and before reaching Rio Janeiro 
these had all to be put overboard. The rainbow trout eggs carried very badly, 
and nearly all were lost by July 23. On this date the few remaining live eggs 
were planted in Laguna La Grande, as it was deemed impossible to reach the 
Nahuel Huapi hatchery with any alive. 

The third shipment was more successful, although far from satisfactory. 
Early in January, 1905, one of our superintendents left New York with 300,000 
brook trout {Salvelinus fontinalis) eggs, 224,000 lake trout {Cristivomer namay- 
cush), 100,000 quinnat salmon {Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) , 92,000 rainbow 
trout {Salmo irideus) , and 30,000 landlocked salmon {Salmo salar sebago) , arriv- 
ing in Buenos Aires February 4. On arrival in the city, the quinnat salmon 
eggs were found to be practically all dead, while the larger portion of rainbows 
were either dead or dying. The landlocked salmon, brook and lake trout were 
in much better condition, the percentage of loss en route having been compara- 
tively small. The greater portion of the live eggs were taken to the Nahuel 
Huapi hatchery, where they were hatched with fair success. An attempt was 
made, however, to hatch a few landlocked salmon, brook and lake trout eggs in 
a temporary hatching plant erected at Alta Gracia, in the Province of Cordoba. 
The water to be used was from a small mountain stream, it being hoped that the 
weather would be sufficiently cold at this time — the latter part of March — to 
reduce the water temperature here to about 55° F. Unfortunately, however, 
the weather proved to be as warm as at any time during the entire summer, and 
consequently the water temperature in this stream would rise to about 75° F. at 
midday, although usually falling to about 60° F. each night. The hatching 
plant had been located where there were two small springs whose waters came 
out of the ground at 62>^° F. This water was to be given a trial in case the 
water in the stream was higher, but water at 62>^ ° F. was found to be entirely too 
warm for hatching and rearing eggs which had been in refrigerator cases at a 
temperature of 35° to 38° F. for nearly eighty days. A few thousand fish of 
each variety were hatched, but had to be planted soon after coming out. It has 
been reported that some of the trout and landlocked salmon planted here have 
been caught from time to time, but I have never been able to obtain a specimen 
of either. 

The fourth shipment yielded even better results than the first. On Febru- 
ary 10, 1906, I left New York, en route to Argentina via England, with 300,000 
quinnat salmon {Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) eggs, 122,500 sockeye salmon 
{Oncorhynchus nerka), 98,200 silver salmon {Oncorhynchus kisutch), 80,000 lake 
trout {Cristivomer namaycush), 60,000 brook trout {Salvelinus fontinalis), 
30,000 landlocked salmon {Salmo salar sebago), and 25,000 rainbow trout {Salmo 



962 



BUI^IvETlN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 



irideus). At Southampton, England, on February 23, I received 25,000 Atlantic 
salmon {Salmo salar) eggs from the Earl of Denbigh's fisheries in North Wales. 
On March 17 I arrived at Buenos Aires, but I was unavoidably delayed here for 
10 days. The losses from the time the eggs were packed at the hatcheries in the 
United States and North Wales until reshipped on March 27, en route to the 
Santa Cruz hatchery, in southern Argentina, were as follows : Quinnat and sockeye 
salmon, i per cent each; brook and lake trout, the same; silver and landlocked 
salmon, 2 per cent each; Atlantic salmon, only 5 per cent, while it was 20 per 
cent on one lot of rainbow and 60 per cent on another. From this time until all 
of the eggs were hatched, April 30, the losses of eggs and alevins were as follows: 
Quinnat and silver salmon, only 2 per cent; sockeye salmon, 4 per cent; lake 
trout and landlocked salmon, only 5 per cent; brook trout, 20 per cent (mostly 
fish hatched en route because of the delay in Buenos Aires) , and Atlantic salmon 
and rainbow trout, about 50 per cent. 

The following table shows the number of each species on hand at the Santa 
Cruz hatchery May i, 1906, and again on November i, 1906, with losses, plants 
made, etc., during this period (6 months) : 

Record of Santa Cruz Hatchery. May i to November i, 1906. 



Species. 


On hand 
May I. 


Deaths May 
I to Nov I . 


Per cent of 
loss. 


Distributed 
May I to 
Nov. I. 


On hand 
Nov. I. 




291, 000 
116, 400 
94,300 
75,200 
47, 500 
27,90c 
9. 400 
II, 900 


8,730 
2.330 

4.71S 
2, 250 
2,850 
3.070 
750 
5 . 900 


3 
2 
5 
3 
6 

1 1 
8 

50 


270,470 

no, 470 

85. i8s 

68,550 

40, 050 

24, 040 

8, 400 

6, 000 


I r , 800 




3, 600 








4, 400 




4, 600 




790 




250 










Total . . 


673, 600 


30,595 




613, 165 











The following table shows the number of each species on hand at the Santa 
Cruz hatchery on November i, 1906, and again on March i, 1907, with losses, 
plants made, etc., during this period (4 months) : • 

Record of Santa Cruz Hatchery, November i, 1906, to March i, 1907. 



Species. 



Quinnat salmon 

Silver salmon 

Sockeye salmon 

Brook trout 

Lake trout 

Landlocked salmon 
Rainbow trout 

Total 



On hand 

Nov. I. 



1 1, 800 
4, 400 
3,600 
4, 600 
4, 400 
790 
250 



29, 840 



Deaths Nov. 
I to Mar. I . 



165 



408 



Per cent of 
loss. 



Distributed 

Nov. I to 
Mar. I. 



7, 000 
1,300 



8, 300 



On hand 

Mar. I. 



4.635 
3.078 
3.580 
4.535 
4.364 
703 
237 



21, 132 



AMERICAN FISHES IN ARGENTINA. 



963 



The following table shows the number of each species on hand on March i , 
1907, and again on October i, 1907, with losses and plants made during this 
period (7 months) : 

Record of Santa Cruz Hatchery, March i to October i, 1907. 



Species. 



Quinnat salmon 

Silver salmon 

Sockeye salmon 

Brook trout 

Lake trout 

Landlocked salmon 
Rainbow trout 

Total 



On hand 
Mar. I. 



4.63 s 
3.078 
3.S80 
4,S3S 
4.364 
703 
237 



21, 132 



Deaths 

Mar. I to 

Oct. I. 



Distributed 
Mar. I to 
June 1. 



4. 135 

2,578 

3.078 

693 

983 

499 



II, 966 



On hand 
Oct. I. 



496 

492 
4SS 
817 
324 
140 
222 



8.946 



The Santa Cruz hatchery is supplied with water from two springs, which 
do not run more than 125 gallons of water per minute, at a temperature of 48° F. 
When the shortage of this water supply is considered, it is little less than remark- 
able that we were able to hold the large numbers of 6 months old fish (about 
30,000, the greater number being Pacific coast salmon) which we had on hand 
November i, 1906 (see first table), and have them in a perfect state of health 
on this date. In fact they were as healthy as possible on October i, 1907, one 
year and six months after they were hatched. The very low death rate from 
November i, 1906, to October i, 1907, will be found by referring to the last two 
tables. The water supply of the Santa Cruz hatchery decreased greatly during 
the summer of 1907-8 (months of December, January, and February), and the 
fish on hand showing signs of disease, a number of each species were planted 
during these months. 

On January 18, 1908, the fifth lot of eggs brought from the United States 
to Argentina left New York, numbering as follows: 300,000 quinnat salmon 
(Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) , 104,000 sockeye salmon {Oncorhynchus nerka), 
90,000 silver salmon {Oncorhynchus kisutch), 75,000 lake trout {Cristivomer 
namaycush), 75,000 brook trout {Salvelinus fontinalis), 30,000 rainbow trout 
{Salmo irideus), 15,000 landlocked salmon {Salmo salar sebago), and 3,000,000 
cod (Gadus callarias). I personally had charge of this consignment of eggs to 
Southampton, England, being accompanied by Mr. Frank Brophy. The loss of 
the cod eggs was almost complete when we arrived in England, hence I deter- 
mined not to attempt to take any of these farther. The loss of other eggs was 
very small indeed, having been less than one-half of i per cent from the time 
they were packed until put on board the steamship Thames on January 30, en 
route to Buenos Aires. The eggs were given over to Mr. Brophy 's charge when 
this ship left her dock on January i , and in addition to those already mentioned 



964 BUI^irETlN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

he was given 20,000 Atlantic salmon eggs which were secured from the Earl of 
Denbigh's fisheries in North Wales. Mr. Brophy arrived with the eggs at the 
hatchery in Santa Cruz on March i. The loss from the time of leaving South- 
ampton until the eggs were unpacked at the hatchery was as follows : Quinnat 
salmon, a little over three-fourths of i per cent; sockeye salmon, a little over 
ii'V per cent; silver salmon, a little less than nine-tenths of i per cent; lake 
trout, something over three-fifths of i per cent; brook trout, somewhat over 
two-fifths of I per cent; landlocked salmon, a trifle over lyi per cent; rainbows 
(youngest packed without moss) about 30I per cent ; rainbows (youngest packed 
in moss) , a little less than 64 per cent ; rainbows (oldest packed without moss) , 
5 1 per cent; rainbows (oldest packed in moss), a trifle over 61 per cent; and 
Atlantic salmon 100 per cent. The total loss of the Atlantic salmon was due to 
imperfect packing, which was not discovered until after the eggs were all injured. 

While the eggs that reached the hatchery alive appeared to be good, they 
were not as strong as a similar lot brought out for this hatchery from the United 
States and England two years previously, as will be seen by a comparison of 
the records. The death rate from the time the eggs were put into the hatching 
trays until they had finished hatching was in most cases rather high, as was 
also the death rate of fry during the month of March. The losses of eggs during 
the hatching period w,ere as follows: Quinnat salmon, —9 per cent; blueback 
(sockeye), 30 -f- per cent; silver salmon, —14 per cent; landlocked salmon, 
44- per cent; brook trout, 34 -h per cent; lake trout, 174- per cent; and rain- 
bow trout, —44 per cent. The losses of alevins during the month of March was 
as follows: Quinnat salmon, 5 -f per cent; sockeye salmon —9 per cent; silver 
salmon 18+ per cent; landlocked salmon —63 per cent; brook trout, 10 -f 
per cent; lake trout, —27 per cent; and rainbow trout, 100 per cent. 

The lake trout from this hatchery and also the landlocked and sockeye 
salmon are planted in Lago Argentino and other bodies of water near by. The 
other salmon are usually planted in the Rio Santa Cruz and tributaries and 
Rio Gallegos and tributaries. The brook trout are planted in tributaries to 
the rivers mentioned, also in the tributaries of Lago Argentino and Lago San 
Martin. The rainbows (first lot of eggs) were planted in tributaries to the Rio 
Santa Cruz. Lago Argentino is supplied by several small rivers and streams 
which rise in the Andes Mountains, where there is ice and snow the entire year. 
The Rio Santa Cruz rises in Lago Argentino, which itself is situated in the 
Andes Mountains at an elevation of 2,500 to 3,000 feet above sea level, and is 
very deep. This lake has not yet been accurately surveyed, but is supposed 
to be 25 to 30 miles long at its greatest length and from 6 to 8 miles wide. 
It is in the Territory of Santa Cruz, which is the most southerly but one of 
Argentina. 



AMERICAN FISHES IN ARGENTINA. 9^5 

On May 6 of this year I left New York with about 300,000 steelhead trout 
{Salmo gairdneri), these being the sixth lot of eggs to leave the United States 
for the Argentine National Government. These eggs were taken to South- 
ampton, England, where 50,000 rainbow eggs from Germany were added to 
the consignment. They left England May 15, arriving in Buenos Aires on June 
7, and at the La Cumbre hatchery on the 13th of the same month. The loss of 
eggs en route from the United States was very small, and not over 10 per cent 
on the rainbow eggs from Germany, this latter loss being entirely due to rough 
handling between Germany and England in the absence of any attendant. 
From England to the La Cumbre hatchery the loss was less than one-half of 
I per cent. The loss of the oldest steelhead eggs during the hatching was 61 
per cent, mostly due to these eggs being a trifle too far advanced when shipped. 
The loss of the second oldest steelhead eggs during the same period was about 
i5>^per cent, due greatly to the eggs being a trifle young when packed. The 
loss of the youngest of this lot of eggs while hatching was i8| per cent, due 
also, no doubt, mostly to the fact that the eggs were rather young for packmg. 
There is, however, no way to avoid these losses on journeys of this length, as 
some eggs must be shipped when younger than others to guard against the pos- 
sibility of the older eggs hatching en route. The loss of steelhead fry until 
they were six weeks old was 4 per cent. At this age tljey were as strong and 
healthy a lot of young trout as I have ever seen. All were feeding at this time. 
The loss of the rainbows during the hatching period was about loK per cent, 
and the loss of fry until six weeks old was 2I per cent. At six weeks of age 
these were all taking food, and were very healthy and strong. 



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